Foreign Language Education in the United States: Trends and Challenges
Renate A. Schulz

Presidential commissions, politicians, business leaders, and educators have long expressed concern about the lack of foreign language competence among U.S. citizens (Strength Through Wisdom, 1979; Simon, 1980). Compared to other countries, the United States has a weak language policy, and foreign language curricular guidelines and systematic outcome assessments are practically nonexistent. The United States may be the only nation in the world where it is possible to complete secondary and postsecondary education without any foreign language study whatsoever. The prevalent practice of offering (or even requiring) one or two years of foreign language study for high school or college graduation is simply inadequate for giving students meaningful competence in foreign languages.

There are many advantages that come with the ability to communicate with individuals of different language communities and to understand and appreciate their media, literature, and other cultural, scientific, and artistic accomplishments. For example, research has shown that studying a language other than one's native tongue can enhance problem-solving skills, creativity, and general cognitive development and may even aid in sharpening native language skills. The often-cited studies by Cooper (1987) and the College Entrance Examination Board (1992) have found significant, positive correlations between high verbal SAT scores and extended (four years or more) foreign language study. An infrequently recognized benefit is that study of any foreign language enhances success in future language learning if the need to learn a new language arises. Significant changes have occurred in the field of foreign language education in the past two decades. This article provides a brief overview of the field today. It discusses trends in student enrollment, the instructional approach of communicative language teaching, standards and assessments, scheduling and instructional options, and characteristics of effective programs. It also considers the challenge of providing a well-articulated sequence of foreign language instruction from the elementary school grades through high school and on to college, and it highlights several aspects of foreign language teacher education and professional development. Many of these themes are further developed in other articles in this issue of The ERIC Review.

Student Enrollment Trends

U.S. foreign language enrollment trends show frequent ups and downs. The popularity of individual languages also varies over time. For instance, German was the most popular foreign language studied in the early part of the century, and French was the second-most popular language in the early part of the century, but now the most popular language is Spanish.

A survey of foreign language enrollments in public secondary schools during the fall of 1994, conducted by the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) (Draper and Hicks, 1996), indicated that 6,095,668 students (33 percent) in grades 7 through 12 were studying a language other than English. This represented a noteworthy 3.8 percent increase in enrollments since 1990. Almost two-thirds (64.5 percent) of all high school foreign language enrollments were for Spanish classes, followed by 22.3 percent for French, 6.1 percent for German, and 3.5 percent for Latin. Although Japanese enrollments almost doubled between 1990 and 1994, Japanese still accounted for less than 1 percent of all foreign language enrollments, as did enrollments for all other languages offered at the secondary school level.

A disturbing finding of the ACTFL survey was a high attrition rate among students enrolled in foreign language courses between grades 9 and 12. In Spanish classes, for instance, the attrition rate between the first and second year of study (grades 9 and 10) was about 29 percent; between the second and third year, about 63 percent; and between the third and fourth year, another 67 percent. In other words, of the 869,271 students who took first-year Spanish in ninth grade, only 74,684 (8.6 percent) were still taking that language four years later. Similar attrition rates, although not quite as dramatic, are evident for other languages.

A more recent survey conducted by the Center for Applied Linguistics (Branaman and Rhodes, 1998) shows a nearly 10 percent increase in the number of elementary schools offering foreign language programs since 1987. Almost one-third of all responding elementary schools reported that they offer some form of foreign language instruction (mostly Spanish), involving approximately 4 million elementary school students (out of a total of 27.1 million). However, the vast majority of these programs appear to offer only an introductory exposure to languages. They are not conceived as a foundation for long-term, sequential, well-articulated programs that lead to overall proficiency in a language.

At the secondary school level, the survey reports that the number of schools offering foreign language instruction has remained fairly stable over the past 10 years: 87 percent in 1987 and 86 percent in 1996. Ten million secondary school students (out of a total of 21.7 million) are enrolled in foreign language classes. The survey also reports a 4 percent increase in the number of advanced placement foreign language classes offered since 1987; still, they are offered by only 16 percent of high schools.

The Move Toward Communicative Language Teaching

In the past two decades, foreign language instruction has moved away from an almost exclusive focus on the components of language--grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation--to a focus on the development of communicative proficiency--the ability to communicate in the target language (language being studied) in real-life contexts. Communicative language teaching builds on the understanding that language use is governed not only by phonological and grammatical rules, but also by sociolinguistic and discourse rules (Canale and Swain, 1980). In other words, natural language use is a complex, creative activity that takes different forms depending on a variety of factors, including the context in which the interaction occurs, the characteristics of the speaker or writer (for example, age, gender, social status, level of education, and geographic origin), the characteristics of the listener or reader, and the purpose of the interaction (Hymes, 1972).

Whereas previous foreign language teaching methods--such as the grammar translation and audiolingual methods--focused predominantly on grammatical form within a sentence-level context (or sometimes without any meaningful context), communicative language teaching focuses on the meaning of a message within a given situation, realizing that different cultures may have different ways to perform different speech acts in different contexts. It is the context that determines what is said, how it is said, to whom it is said, and why it is said. Thus communicative language teaching often uses language functions or speech acts (for example, asking questions, apologizing, complimenting, reporting, giving directions, and making requests), rather than specific grammatical structures, as its organizing principles.

With the communicative language teaching approach, teachers and students use the target language extensively, if not exclusively. Students are given information-exchange tasks that they can complete by working in pairs or small groups. This interactive, situational language practice requires learners "to interpret, express, and negotiate meaning in the new language" (Lee and VanPatten, 1995).

Communicative language teaching also advocates the use of culturally authentic texts written by native speakers for native speakers instead of simplified or edited texts developed expressly for foreign language learners. Effective use of authentic texts includes having the learners perform interesting and level-appropriate tasks after or while seeing, hearing, or viewing culturally authentic materials. For example, it would be inappropriate to give beginning learners a newspaper editorial and ask them to translate or summarize its content. However, even beginning learners can find dates and names of persons or places and can often get the general sense of what is being said.

Although discrete-point grammar instruction, mechanical pattern practice, and instant and direct error correction--which dominated foreign language instruction in the past--are frowned upon in the communicative classroom, attention to grammatical patterns continues to play an important role. This is true particularly for adolescent and adult learners, who are often intrigued by--and find it helpful to understand--structural differences between their own and the target language. The role of grammar is to support the exchange of meaning, the informational contents, and the communicative purposes dealt with in the classroom.

Foreign Language Standards and Assessments

The far-reaching influence of communicative language teaching is apparent both in the new foreign language standards and in the latest assessments for students. The foreign language standards set out in Standards for Foreign Language Learning: Preparing for the 21st Century (National Standards in Foreign Language Education Project, 1996) were developed by ACTFL in collaboration with the American Association of Teachers of French, the American Association of Teachers of German, and the American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese. They define what students should know and be able to do in a K-12 sequence of foreign language instruction. The standards address communication, cultures, connections, comparisons, and communities.

Although the standards do not dictate curricula, instructional methods, or assessment--which are to be determined on a local level--they are expected to have a major influence on all of these aspects of language learning. "National Standards: Preparing for the Future" describes the specific goals of the national standards and provides a sample scenario that shows how the standards can be incorporated into classroom instruction.

As the focus of foreign language instruction has moved away from the discrete language skills of grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation toward the development of communicative proficiency, so has the focus of language testing moved away from discrete-point tests toward measures of actual performance (Bachman, 1990). Students used to be asked to fill in the blanks with appropriate verb conjugations, rewrite present-tense sentences in the appropriate past tense, provide correct adjective endings, and select case endings in a multiple-choice format. Now, their progress is more likely to be assessed through oral interviews (live or simulated with a tape recorder or computer), portfolios, journals, and class projects. These authentic assessments provide insight into the process of students' learning and also measure learning outcomes.

Authentic assessment procedures are high in face validity and communicative authenticity, but they offer challenges in the areas of reliability and practicality. Many require teachers to have specific training to administer and score these types of tests, and most require more time from teachers than traditional paper-and-pencil tests. Because of these factors, it is likely that multiple-choice formats and other predictable, easily scorable formats will continue to be used in many circumstances. It is, however, essential that each teacher and each program implement some evaluation procedures that measure learners' ability to use the target language creatively in real communicative situations.

ACTFL's Proficiency Guidelines (1986) can provide a framework for assessment. Developed in the mid-1980s as a milestone in the movement to increase students' foreign language proficiency, the Guidelines define four main levels of proficiency--from Novice to Superior--that are further divided into nine subcategories. They describe specific communicative tasks that individuals should be able to carry out at each level. Teachers can use an assessment known as the Oral Proficiency Interview (OPI) to evaluate students' oral proficiency according to the Guidelines. New guidelines, designed specifically for use with learners in grades K-12, are scheduled for release in late 1998.

The Guidelines have also had a considerable effect on curriculum and materials development and on approaches to teaching and testing (Omaggio-Hadley, 1993). For a more detailed description of the influence of the proficiency movement on the assessment of foreign language learners, see Current Trends in Foreign Language Assessment.

Foreign Language Scheduling and Instructional Options

Foreign languages are most often taught as separate academic subjects in elementary and secondary schools; however, there are other scheduling and instructional options that may lead to increased proficiency. This section provides an overview of these options; for more details about traditional, exploratory, and immersion programs, see "Many Ways To Learn: Elementary School Foreign Language Program Models."

Traditional Scheduling

A daily class period of 40 to 55 minutes is still the most common option for foreign language instruction in secondary schools across the United States. Although students in traditional programs have less exposure to the target language and fewer opportunities to use it than students in intensive or immersion programs (described below), they still benefit from continuous daily exposure to the language, which is especially important during the first two years of study.

Block Scheduling

Block scheduling allows for classroom periods longer than the traditional 40 to 55 minutes. It can offer exciting opportunities for learners and teachers at the higher levels of language study once students are able to comprehend the language and work with a variety of texts (oral, visual, and written) and communicative activities.

Block scheduling comes in many complex variations. Examples include four-block schedules (90-minute classes in four subjects offered on alternate days during the school year) or trimester plans (three- or four-hour blocks in two subjects for 13 weeks, followed by similar blocks in other subjects for two additional 13-week periods) (Canady and Rettig, 1995). If a block-scheduling framework is used for foreign language instruction, however, it is important that the instruction not be interrupted for lengthy periods (such as in a semester-on, semester-off schedule), or language loss is likely to occur. But students at very advanced levels of language study do not necessarily need daily class meetings or five hours of instruction every week to retain their skills.

Successful block scheduling requires fundamental changes in instruction. To make the transition from traditional to block scheduling, teachers need training to expand their repertoire of strategies. Staff development might include such areas as curriculum, assessment, team teaching, and uses of technology (Foreign Language on the Block, 1996; Wisconsin Association of Foreign Language Teachers, 1995).

Intensive Programs

Intensive instruction is any formal instructional program that provides more than one hour per day of classroom exposure to the language (Benseler and Schulz, 1979). A general rule in foreign language learning is that the more opportunities that learners have to be exposed to and use the language, the faster they will acquire it and the more proficient they will become. This positive correlation between time spent using the language and increased language proficiency has been demonstrated repeatedly in intensive instruction programs, as well as in immersion instruction and study-abroad programs.

Immersion Programs

Immersion may be defined as "a program that offers more than four hours of content instruction in the target language in at least one grade level, and educates a largely (at least 75 percent) majority group English-speaking student body" (Fortune and Jorstad, 1996, p. 165). Quite popular in Canada, immersion programs are also increasing in popularity in the United States. Such programs range from total immersion--where 100 percent of all subject matter instruction is conducted in the target language--to partial immersion--where the language is used for at least 50 percent of the school day. Most immersion programs in the United States are found at the elementary school level, although many school districts have developed continuation programs at the secondary level to accommodate children coming from elementary immersion programs.

Because immersion programs aim to teach most of the curriculum in a language other than English, they can closely replicate the natural language environment that children experience when learning their mother tongue. But even communities without immersion schools can offer language immersion camps or other special immersion programs during the summer, which can greatly enhance language learning, ensure language maintenance, and help learners reach higher levels of proficiency.

Study Abroad

Few formal educational experiences have the potential to foster academic and emotional growth and maturation as much as a study-abroad experience. Foreign language teachers should be encouraged and supported by school administrators to create student exchanges with members of the target language culture(s) and to provide guided travel and study-abroad opportunities for their students.

Multilevel Classes

For practical reasons (for example, scheduling conflicts, teacher shortages, or low enrollments at the advanced levels or in less commonly taught languages), it may occasionally be necessary to combine students at different instructional levels in a single classroom. Although experienced teachers learn to survive these assignments by rotating materials, using split-period approaches (in which the teacher spends part of the class time with each group while the other group works independently), individualizing instruction, or using bilingual paraprofessionals (where available) to help out, even the most experienced and dedicated teachers may find that multilevel classes present burdensome overloads for them and often present far-from-optimum learning experiences for students. At the advanced levels of instruction (fourth year and above), after students have the ability to deal with authentic texts fairly independently, it may be possible to teach two levels as a single entity by using different instructional materials in alternate years and by adjusting outcome goals for students at the two levels. At the lower levels of instruction, however, combined classes should be avoided whenever possible, particularly such combinations as first- and fourth-year students or other nonsequential combinations.

Characteristics of Effective Programs

It is well known that almost all young children acquire their native language naturally in the course of normal development and that they can acquire a second language simultaneously if their second language environment is similar to that of their native language environment. In an ideal educational scenario, children would begin foreign language study in an elementary school immersion setting where several subjects are taught in the target language, but often this is not possible. Fortunately, unless native or near-native pronunciation is a high priority, this early start in language learning is not absolutely essential. In fact, numerous research studies have shown that adolescents and young adults can be quite efficient language learners (again with the exception of acquiring native-like pronunciation) in situations in which exposure to the language is limited to a classroom setting. As Swain and Lapkin (1989, p. 150) point out, "Older learners may not only exhibit as much success in learning certain aspects of a second language as younger learners, but they can also accomplish this learning in a shorter period of time.

What is essential for the development of a lasting and usable competence in a foreign language is a lengthy, well-articulated, high-quality instructional sequence. This means that if language proficiency is the major goal of instruction, then the length of formal language study needs to be four years or more. Instruction must be well-articulated in a continuous, sequentially planned and executed curriculum through which students progress without interruption from the beginning of their foreign language study to high school graduation.

Articulation and Sequencing

All too often, students who begin studying a foreign language in elementary or middle school have to interrupt their study at some point. There may be a scheduling conflict with a required course, or perhaps no qualified teacher is available. Study may resume in high school, where students usually start at the beginning level again. After students take the usual one or two years of foreign language study in high school, they are frequently assigned to first-year foreign language classes at colleges and universities. Unfortunately, many school districts do not have an articulated sequence of language instruction that takes learners from the beginning stages in elementary, middle, or junior high to more accomplished levels of language competence in high school. Even most colleges and universities express their entrance or graduation requirements in terms of classroom seat time (for example, two years) rather than in terms of measurable knowledge or competencies. The lack of common goals and expected outcomes results in a tremendous waste of educational resources. Again, it does not really matter when students start foreign language study, but they must have lengthy, well-articulated sequences of instruction available to them once they start.

Numerous state and local efforts are currently under way to develop models and procedures for articulating language learning and teaching across instructional levels. Examples of these include Ohio's Collaborative Articulation and Assessment Project (see Corl et al., 1996), Arizona's Partnership Across Languages Project, and Minnesota's Articulation and Assessment Project.

High-Quality Instruction

What constitutes high-quality instruction is a somewhat more complex issue. Second-language-acquisition theorists do not fully agree on the conditions that are necessary for students to acquire a second language, particularly if the students' exposure to the language is limited to the classroom. Most theorists agree, however, that instruction must include two factors:

	Extensive, age- and level-appropriate, comprehensible input (provided by the teacher, texts, instructional media, the Internet, and native speakers of the language).
	Frequent opportunities to use the language in real human interaction for communicative purposes such as exchanging information, having fun with friends, and learning.

To provide comprehensible input and opportunities for interaction, foreign language teachers must be highly fluent in the language and be able to use it confidently and with reasonable accuracy to fulfill everyday communicative needs. Also, teachers must motivate learners to use their language skills and to slowly hone them to a high level of accuracy. Small classes are more supportive of communicative learning than large ones.

Other Recent Developments in Foreign Language Education The emphases on communicative competence, standards, and authentic assessments have had a significant effect on foreign language curricula in recent years, as have such general instructional trends as a move toward more learner-centered instruction and experiential, task-based learning. Other noteworthy developments include the following: Technology-Assisted Language Learning. Foreign language learning is enhanced by a large amount of meaningful input, including direct insights into the culture of the target language area that can be obtained through current news, cultural or other informational programs, advertising, authentic texts (written, oral, and pictorial), and direct interaction with native speakers. Learners can now use such technologies as e-mail; the Internet; and interactive, multimedia software programs to access multiple resources such as picture files, dictionaries, and grammars. These technologies can help learners use the language for real communicative purposes and in real-world contexts (see "Using the Internet for Foreign Language Learning"). Content-Based Instruction. Content-based foreign language instruction incorporates themes and objectives from the regular academic curriculum and uses them to teach foreign language skills (Met, 1991). The success of immersion programs--in which many or all subjects are taught entirely in the target language--has stimulated interest in using content-based instruction in other types of foreign language programs that have typically been organized around grammar and vocabulary. Incorporating subject content into language instruction puts language into a larger, more meaningful context and provides situations that require real language use. Languages for Special Purposes. Languages for special purposes (for example, Spanish for marketing or law enforcement and German for business or tourism) represent a form of content-based instruction that has traditionally been in the purview of postsecondary institutions. There is no reason, however, that school districts that offer lengthy instructional sequences in a foreign language cannot, at the advanced levels, focus such instruction on language skills needed in specific professions or vocations. For example, some courses are now targeted to health and human services professionals attempting to meet the needs of their clients in their first languages. Programs for Heritage Learners. Historically, the United States has aimed to assimilate newcomers linguistically without making any effort to retain their home languages as potential national resources. In other words, the U.S. educational system encourages the loss of the heritage language and then puts learners in foreign language classes to start all over again. However, introductory foreign language classes are not the optimum place for those learners who have already acquired basic communicative skills in the language of their home environment. "Heritage Language Students: A Valuable Language Resource" describes some of the efforts currently under way to develop curricula for heritage language learners to enable them to retain their native languages and to increase their language proficiency and functional levels.

Teacher Preparation and Competencies

The majority of foreign language teachers are well prepared in language and cultural studies as well as in pedagogical strategies for effective language instruction. If, however, a survey conducted by the American Association of Teachers of German (Schulz, 1993) can be generalized to other languages, then foreign language teachers often have only a partial assignment in teaching the language and must also teach other subjects. Many teachers have only a minor in the language they are teaching and often lack the communicative confidence to use the language as a means of classroom communication. Additionally, many foreign language teachers face isolation at school. If lucky, the Spanish teacher has at least a German teacher to talk to, but in many schools a lone Spanish teacher does not even have the luxury of a colleague in another language. The growing use of the Internet in the classroom also exerts professional development demands on teachers, many of whom received no training in the classroom use of this technology during their undergraduate study.

Foreign language teachers have a continuing need for professional development that provides opportunities to improve their target language competence and their teaching skills. This is particularly crucial for elementary school teachers, most of whom have no special training or certification to teach languages at that level.

In most states, teachers are required to continue earning academic credits to maintain their teaching licenses. Many foreign language teachers take evening or summer courses or participate in workshops and seminars offered by universities or professional associations. The federal government provides funding for a number of continuing education programs for foreign language teachers; for more information about these programs, see "Professional Development for Foreign Language Teachers" and "Federal Support for Foreign Language Education."

Many teachers also take advantage of informal opportunities to improve and maintain their language skills and their understanding of the target language culture(s). They travel abroad, either on their own or with a formal program; they participate in locally organized immersion weekends or monthly dinners at which current events are discussed in the target language; and they read literature and watch movies in the target language.

Those in charge of hiring must ensure that potential foreign language teachers have the language and cultural knowledge, the language proficiency, and the pedagogical competence required for effective teaching. It is a sad fact that entry-level teaching credentials do not always guarantee high subject-matter competence. Few university language departments assume the responsibility of formally testing and certifying students in the competencies of their majors before awarding degrees, and only a few states require formal documentation of foreign language proficiency before granting teaching licenses. Because learners need exposure to the target language (comprehensible input) and interaction opportunities in the language, the teacher's communicative ability is of crucial importance in a proficiency-oriented program. A rating of Advanced on the ACTFL OPI is generally considered the minimum level for effective communication in an instructional context (see "Professional Development for Foreign Language Teachers" and "Current Trends in Foreign Language Assessment"). School districts that do not have inhouse expertise to help them with the hiring process should not hesitate to require a formal proficiency rating (either through ACTFL or the Center for Applied Linguistics) from applicants for foreign language teaching positions.

Most languages taught in the schools are supported by professional organizations that actively assist in the professional development of teachers and in the development of curricula and materials. (See "Foreign Language Resource Organizations.") The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards has also included foreign languages among the 33 fields and levels for which it will offer National Board certification for accomplished teachers, and a committee has been appointed to develop foreign language standards and procedures for evaluating the performance of teachers.

Conclusion

Foreign language education has received considerable attention in recent years. Foreign languages have been recognized among the core subjects in the Goals 2000: Educate America Act, and Standards for Foreign Language Learning has received positive reviews in the education community. The recent growth in elementary school foreign language programs demonstrates an increased understanding of the value of an early start in foreign language study. The growth in the number of advanced placement foreign language courses is a quality indicator for those schools that offer them and shows an increased understanding that instructional sequences of four years and longer are needed if practical, useful language proficiency is to be achieved. The many state and local efforts under way to develop articulated sequences that will ensure a seamless transition for students from elementary school through junior high school, high school, and even college provide evidence that language educators want to be accountable and want to facilitate the transitions through the various instructional levels. It will be up to the school districts to support these efforts; to ensure that long-term, well-articulated, high-quality foreign language programs are in place; and to ensure that enlightened teachers, counselors, and administrators make it possible for learners to reach high levels of proficiency.

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Renate A. Schulz is Professor of German Studies and a faculty member of the Interdisciplinary Ph.D. Program in Second Language Acquisition and Teaching at the University of Arizona. She has had many articles published on the learning and teaching of foreign languages. She is a native speaker of German and a past president of the American Association of Teachers of German.

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