Encouraging Girls in Science and Math
Linda A. Milbourne
While jobs requiring advanced degrees in science and math continue to increase, women remain
underrepresented in these careers, particularly in engineering. In 1995, women constituted about
46 percent of the U.S. labor force, but only about 22 percent of the scientists and engineers in the
labor force (National Science Foundation, 1999). Many other career paths also require advanced
education in science and math, so today more than ever before, all students must be included in
the national priority to make U.S. students first in the world in science and mathematics
achievement (Goal Five of the National Education Goals). Girls, in particular, need to be shown
the options open to them by continuing to study science and math.
Gender Differences in Science and Math Enrollment
| Percentage of High School Graduates in 1994 Earning Credits for the Indicated Courses |
| Courses Taken |
Females |
Males |
| Any Mathematics (1.0)* |
99.91 |
99.91 |
| Algebra II (1.0) |
61.00 |
54.39 |
| Calculus (1.0) |
9.15 |
9.45 |
| AP Calculus (1.0) |
6.81 |
7.17 |
| Any Science (1.0) |
99.78 |
99.50 |
| AP/Honors Biology (1.0) |
12.81 |
10.92 |
| Chemistry |
58.59 |
52.90 |
| AP Chemistry (1.0) |
3.73 |
4.08 |
| Physics |
22.28 |
27.19 |
| AP/Honors Physics (1.0) |
2.02 |
3.45 |
| Biology + Chemistry + Physics (3.0) |
19.80 |
23.24 |
| Clerical & Data Entry (1.0) |
24.40 |
16.42 |
| Computer Applications (1.0) |
1.14 |
6.08 |
| Computer Science (0.5) |
26.53 |
29.83 |
| Computer Science (1.0) |
10.96 |
13.85 |
| *Carnegie Units |
| --U.S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics. 1997. The 1994 High
School Transcript Study Tabulations: Comparative Data on Credits Earned and Demographics
for 1994, 1990, 1987, and 1982 High School Graduates, Revised. National Center for Education
Statistics Report No. NCES 98-532. Washington, DC: Author. |
In 1992, the American Association of University Women reported that girls did not take as many
advanced science and math courses in high school as boys. Since then, the gap in math has
decreased, but girls still lag behind in physics and computer science: although girls and boys
essentially take the same amount of science and math course work in high school, girls are less
likely to take physics; Advanced Placement (AP) chemistry or AP physics; or the sequence of
biology, chemistry, and physics generally taken by students planning to major in science or math
in college (see the table to the right). As shown in the table, significantly more girls than boys
take clerical and data entry computer courses, but more boys than girls take computer application
and computer science courses.
The most recent National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) in science shows a
similar pattern of course work: although 71 percent of girls and 66 percent of boys in grade 12
reported taking biology and chemistry, only 29 percent of girls and 34 percent of boys reported
taking biology, chemistry, and physics (O'Sullivan, Weiss, and Askew, 1998). It appears that
girls often do not realize that higher-level science and math courses are prerequisites for some
college majors.
Gender Differences in Science and Math Proficiency
It comes as no surprise that enrollment in advanced science and math courses in high school is
related to proficiency in these subjects (Madigan, 1997). Because the gender gap in math
enrollment has been closing, gender differences in math proficiency scores have decreased
accordingly. NAEP results for 1994 show no gap in math proficiency scores between boys and
girls at ages 9 and 13, and the gap in scores that existed from 1973 to 1986 between 17-year-old
boys and girls has practically disappeared [National Center for Education Statistics (NCES),
1997]. However, the gender gap in science proficiency persists. In 1994, science proficiency
scores were similar for girls and boys at age 9, but clearly lower for girls at age 13--and the gap is
growing (NCES, 1997).
Though girls begin to fall behind boys on standardized science exams by grade 7, they do not fall
behind in math until grade 10. By the time students take the Scholastic Assessment Tests (SAT)
and the AP exams in science and math, boys outscore girls in both science and math. It is critical
to remember that gender differences in science and math proficiency scores become apparent
when girls either stop taking advanced courses or enroll in fewer science and math courses than
boys their age.
Factors That Influence the Underachievement of Girls in Science and Math
Beginning at a young age, many girls and boys receive different messages from parents, peers,
teachers, and the media. Young girls are taught to be nurturing while boys are encouraged to play
with toys they can tinker with or manipulate, such as construction sets, Legos, building blocks,
and tool kits. Playing with these toys provides opportunities to develop the problem-solving and
independent-thinking skills inherent to success in science and math. Girls who lack these
skill-building experiences often enter science and math classes feeling insecure about their
abilities.
Self-perceptions play an important role in science and math achievement, especially for girls.
Research shows that self-esteem and academic achievement among girls begin to decline during
middle school (Backes, 1994) and that girls often exhibit a loss of self-confidence by age 12
(Orenstein, 1994). This lack of self-confidence is also reflected in the fact that boys are more
likely to attribute personal success to effort, whereas girls tend to attribute it to luck. As a result,
many girls underachieve in science and math simply because they choose to participate in
activities in which success is almost assured.
Attitudes also contribute to the underachievement of girls in science and math. Although middle
school girls take more high-ability courses than boys and make comparable or higher grades,
their attitudes toward science and math are less positive, and they are less likely to participate in
related extracurricular activities.
| Percentage Distribution
of Probable Fields of Study Among First-Time College Freshmen, by
Sex: Fall 1996 |
| Probable Major Field of Study |
Females |
Males |
| Arts and Humanities |
10.5 |
9.4 |
| Biology |
7.4 |
6.5 |
| Business |
13.8 |
18.1 |
| Computer Sciences |
1.2 |
4.3 |
| Education |
14.2 |
6.3 |
| Engineering |
2.6 |
15.2 |
| Physical Sciencesa |
2.0 |
2.7 |
| Professionalb |
20.2 |
9.8 |
| Social Sciences |
11.7 |
6.1 |
| Technical |
1.4 |
3.7 |
| Other |
6.5 |
10.5 |
| Undecided |
8.8 |
7.4 |
| a Includes fields such as astronomy, chemistry, earth science, mathematics, and physics. |
| b Includes fields such as architecture and health technologies. |
| --Astin, A. W., W. S. Korn, and K. M. Mahoney. 1996. The American Freshman: National
Norms for Fall 1996. Los Angeles, CA: Higher Education Research Institute, Graduate School of
Education and Information Studies, University of California at Los Angeles. |
Unfortunately, research shows that social attitudes tend to become fixed during middle school
and early in high school (Heller and Martin, 1992). So girls who develop negative attitudes
toward science and math during this period of development are unlikely to acquire the academic
background necessary for careers in science, math, or engineering. As a result, by grade 12, more
girls than boys say they chose not to take more science or math courses because they either
disliked the subject matter or didn't do well in those subjects (NCES, 1997). And as the table on
to the left shows, few girls entering college see themselves as future engineers.
In essence, girls' and boys' abilities are the same; their self-perceptions and attitudes are
different. Even girls who have course backgrounds and achievement levels similar to those of
boys have less confidence in their abilities and less interest in studying science and math.
Consequently, girls are less likely than boys to pursue related careers (NCES, 1997).
Finally, some girls underachieve in science and math because they are discouraged from studying
these subjects. One study shows that higher percentages of girls than boys are advised not to take
senior science or math (National Science Foundation, 1994).
What Can Parents Do?
Parents are most influential in giving their daughters the confidence necessary to succeed in
science and math courses and in related careers. Here are several ways that parents can help girls
succeed in science and math:
 |
Maintain high expectations and encourage high achievement and career aspirations. Make
sure girls take Algebra I in eighth grade. Encourage girls to take science and math every year
throughout high school. This will keep their career options open. |
|
Encourage girls to become involved in science, math, or computer clubs in school, or to
join other extracurricular activities, enrichment programs, or summer programs in science and
math. |
|
Show that science and math are important parts of daily life. Involve girls in home
activities, such as cooking, paying bills, balancing checkbooks, fixing appliances, and assembling things. |
|
Reinforce positive attitudes toward science and math. Avoid perpetuating any negative
feelings you may have had as a student. Negative comments imply that it is okay not to do well. |
|
Visit classrooms occasionally and observe the learning environment. Does the teacher call
on boys and girls equally to answer questions? Urge teachers to encourage girls to take advanced
and higher-level science and math courses. |
|
Express confidence in girls' abilities, and let them know that they can become anything
they want to be. Without this encouragement, girls find it difficult to believe in their own
abilities. |
What Can Teachers Do?
|
Have high expectations for girls. Advise them to take science and math courses,
especially advanced courses. |
|
Help girls develop positive attitudes toward science and math. This is especially
important in middle school, when girls are in their early teens. |
|
Develop a classroom atmosphere that encourages participation. Boys call out answers
more often than girls, yet teachers continue to encourage boys more than girls. |
|
Encourage girls to participate in class discussions, projects, and experiments, and provide
opportunities for cooperative learning. All children learn more and show greater interest when
allowed to "do" science and math. Girls generally prefer to work in groups because it reduces
feelings of competitiveness. |
|
Provide girls with access to women mentors and role models by forming partnerships
with local businesses and community organizations. This helps girls learn about various career
options available to them and reinforces the idea that they can succeed in science- and
math-related careers. |
For more parent and teacher tips, see the articles "How Can I Help
My Child Become More Interested in Science?", "How Can I
Help My Child Become More Interested in Math?", and "Putting It All
Together: An Action Plan".
References
American Association of University Women. 1992. How Schools Shortchange Girls. AAUW
Report. Washington: Author.
Backes, J. S. 1994. "Bridging the Gender Gap: Self-Concept in the Middle Grades." Schools in
the Middle (3): 19-23.
Heller, R. S., and C. D. Martin. 1992. Bringing Young Minority Women to the Threshold of
Science. National Science Foundation Report.
Madigan, T. 1997. Science Proficiency and Course Taking in High School: The Relationship of
Science Course-Taking Patterns to Increases in Science Proficiency Between 8th and 12th
Grades. National Center for Education Statistics Report No. NCES 97-838. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Education.
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). 1997. Findings From the Condition of
Education 1997: Women in Mathematics and Science. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
Education. (Available online at http://nces.ed.gov/pubs97/97982.html)
National Science Foundation. 1994. Women, Minorities, and Persons With Disabilities in
Science and Engineering: 1994. Arlington, VA: Author. (Available online at
http://www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/wmpdse94)
National Science Foundation. 1999. Women, Minorities, and Persons With Disabilities in
Science and Engineering: 1998. Arlington, VA: Author. (Available online at
http://www.nsf.gov/sbe/srs/nsf99338)
O'Sullivan, C. Y., A. R. Weiss, and J. M. Askew. 1998. Students Learning Science:
A Report on Policies and Practices in U.S. Schools. National Center for Education Statistics
Report No. NCES 98-493. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education.
Orenstein, P. 1994. Schoolgirls: Young Women, Self-Esteem, and the Confidence Gap. New
York: Doubleday.
| Linda A. Milbourne is Associate Director of the ERIC Clearinghouse for Science, Mathematics,
and Environmental Education at The Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio. She is also the
AskERIC Coordinator for the clearinghouse.
|
 Science and Mathematics Classes for Children With Special Needs
 Table of Contents
 Mathematics Education for Gifted and Talented Children
This page was updated on Fri Nov 2 19:14:45 GMT 2001
|
